Turkish History in the Islamic Period. After the decline of the Uigur State in 840, the Karakhanid State was founded by the Karluks. The reign of the Karakhanids is considered to be a turning point in Turkish history, because Islam was adopted as the official religion during the reign of Satuk Bugra Khan, the Karakhanid leader. The foundations of a historical development referred to as Turkish-Islamic culture and civilization were laid in this period.
During the rule of the Karakhanids, there was another Turkish State , the Ghaznavid State (936-1187), the capital city of which was Ghazi in Afghanistan . Mahmud of Ghazna who was the first to use the title of "Sultan" and laid the foundation for today's Pakistan . The Ghaznavids had to retreat to India after the Dandanakan War with the Seljuks in 1040 and finally came under the sovereignty of the Seljuks.
The Alaeddin Caravanserai built by Alaeddin Keykubat I in 1229, is one of the
best examples of Seljuk architecture.
Another great Turkish State , the Seljuk State (1040-1157) was founded by Selçuk Bey who was a member of the Kinik tribe of the Oghuz Turks. The borders of the state spanned from the Marmara Sea to Lake Balkhash in Central Asia and from the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea to the borders of India and Yemen . The Seljuks entered into a struggle of hegemony with the two Turkish States , the Karakhanids and the Ghaznavids, and succeeded in establishing Turkish unity. Tugrul Bey, the Sultan of the Seljuks, entered Baghdad , the Abbasid Caliphate capital and ended the domination of the Buwayhids, a Persi Shiite dynasty, in 1055. Therefore, the Caliph bestowed upon Tugrul Bey the title of "Ruler of the World". During the reign of Sultan Alparslan, the successor and son of Tugrul Bey, the territories of the country expanded significantly. Sultan Alparslan defeated the Byzantine army which was led by Romanus Diogenes at Manzikert (Malazgirt) in 1071. This victory literally opened up the gates of Anatolia to the Turks. During the reign of Sultan Malik Shah, the Seljuk State experienced its most successful period. The Nizamiye Madrasahs which laid the foundations for the architecture of western universities were constructed in this period.
After Sultan Malik Shah died, the country was divided into small states. The Syrian Seljuks (1092-1117), Iraq and Khorasan Seljuks (1092-1194), Kirman Seljuks (1092-1187) and the Anatolian Seljuks (1092-1194) were among the small states. Moreover, the Khorezm Shah State (1097-1231) was established by Mohammed Khorezm Shah, the son of Anushtegin, the palace servant of Sultan Malik Shah, on the territories of the Great Seljuk State where Lake Aral intersected the Ceyhun River in the southern region.
The most important state established on the lands of the Great Seljuk State was definitely the Anatolian Seljuk State . The center of the state founded by Suleiman ibn Qutulmish was Nicaea (Iznik). During the reign of his son, Kiliç Arslan I, the First Crusade began. Iznik was seized by the Crusaders and given to the Byzantines, and therefore the Anatolian Seljuk capital was moved to Konya . His son Sultan Mesud I repelled the Byzantine army headed for Konya and defeated the Crusaders near the Ceyhan River . Sultan Kiliç Arslan II, the successor of Mesud I defeated the Byzantine army under the leadership of the Emperor Manuel Comnenus I, at Myriokephalon near Denizli. Following this victory, the influence of the Byzantine Empire over Anatolia was completely lost. The most brilliant period of Turkish history was experienced during the reign of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I. However, the death of the Sultan by poisoning created chaos in the country. The rebellion of the Babais was followed by the Mongol invasion and Anatolia was occupied and destroyed by the Mongols following the Kösedag War between the Seljuks and Mongols in 1243. Along with the weakening of Mongol rule towards the end of the 13th century, Turkoman groups who settled on the frontiers during the Seljuk period, founded many beyliks (principalities) of varying size in Anatolia . The Karaman, Germiyan, Esref, Hamid, Alaiye, Mentese, Candar, Pervane, Sahib Ata, Karesi, Saruhan, Aydin, Inanç and Osmanogullari were among the Turkoman beyliks founded in Anatolia during this period. In this period, which is called the Beyliks Period, all of Anatolia came under Turkish rule and a new period of welfare began in the country which had been previously exposed to a great extent to Mongol destruction.
In Egypt , the army commander Izzeddin Aybeg was declared the Sultan, after the death of Es-Salih Necmeddin, the last Ayyubid ruler and thus the Turkish Kölemen (Mameluke) State (1250-1382) was founded. The Mameluke State has an important place in Turkish history, because during the reign of Sultan Aybeg, the Mansure Victory occurred which made the Seventh Crusade ineffective. During the reign of Seyfeddin Kotuz, the Mongol- Armenian-Crusaders alliance which tried to invade Egypt suffered a crushing defeat and the Mongols were not able to capture Syria . The Mameluke Sultans were bestowed the title of "Hadimü'l- Harameyn" (the Servant of Mecca and Medina ), because of their distinguished service to Islam, and acquired justified fame in the Islamic World. The Mameluke State was defeated by the Ottoman State .
One of the most important states of the 14th century was the Tamerlane State (1370-1507). It was founded by Tamerlane, who was a provincial governor in one of the Çagatay khanates. Tamerlane expanded the borders of the state from the Volga River to the Ganges River in India , and from the Tanri Mountains to Izmir and Damascus in a short period of 35 years. The Empire disintegrated after the death of Tamerlane just as rapidly as it had been established. Only Hüseyin Baykara from the Tamerlane dynasty could manage to hold out in Khorasai Herat, the capital city, which became one of the most significant cultural centers in Turkish history. Ali Sir Nevai, the Turkish poet and statesman, was educated there.
The Turkoman group of the Karakoyunlu, founded the Karakoyunlu State (1370-1507) between Irbil and Nakhichevan. This state was formed by the Yiva, Yazir, Döger and Avsar tribes and the Oghuz Turks. Kara Yusuf, the ruler of the Karakoyunlu State , had to take refuge in the Ottoman state during the reign of Yildirim Beyazid as a result of the pressure exerted by Tamerlane. This was considered to be a reason for the Battle of Ankara. Kara Yusuf, who managed to recover after this war reestablished his state after 1406 and captured Mardin, Erzincan, Baghdad, Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Kazvin, and Sultaniye. After his death, the country was dragged into chaos. Although Cihan Shah managed to reunite the state, he was defeated by Akkoyunlu Uzun Hasan at Mardin and the country fell under the hegemony of the Akkoyunlu State .
The Akkoyunlu State (1350-1502) was founded by Turkoman tribes who settled around Diyarbakir-Malatya during the collapse of Mongol rule. The real founder of the state is known to be Kara Yülük Osman Bey. The most powerful period of the Akkoyunlu State was during the reign of Uzun Hasan. During his reign, the borders of the state extended from the Caspian Sea to Syria , and from Azerbaijan to Baghdad . However, his defeat in the Otlukbeli Battle in 1473 by Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror was a heavy blow for him. This defeat helped in the collapse of the Akkoyunlu State and paved the way for the founding of the Safavid State (1501-1736) by Shah Ismail who managed with religious enthusiasm to get the Turkoman groups of Ustaçli, Rumlu, Musullu, Tekeli, Bayburtlu, Karadagli, Dulkadirli, Karamanli, Varsak and Avsar on his side.
Shah Ismail, who established political unity in Iran , expanded his territories. The religious fervor of the Shiite sect played a role in his conquests. However, his activities in Anatolia and also his attempts to annex Anatolia , provoked the reaction of the Ottoman Yavuz Sultan Selim (Selim the Grim). Shah Ismail's army was seriously defeated at the Battle of Çaldiran in 1514. Still, all his successors continued fighting against the Ottomans. However, they were defeated in almost all the battles they fought. The Safavid State ended in the Nadir Shah period.
Zahiruddin Babür, a member of the Tamerlane dynasty, entered India and founded the Turkish-Indian (Babür) Empire (1526- 1858). He became famous for his work written in Turkish called, "Vekayi Babürname". After his death, during the reigns of his sons, Humayun and Ekber, this state developed even further and a large portion of the Indian subcontinent was united under one rule. The period of Hürrem, who had assumed the name of Shah Cihan (Shah of the World) upon ascending the throne, was the most brilliant period of the empire in terms of politics and art. The Taj Mahal at Agra , which is considered to be one of the most beautiful architectural monuments in the world, was constructed during his reign. Architects were also sent from the Ottoman State in order to construct the monument. Domestic turmoil which began during the reign of Alemgir I continued until the reign of Shah Bahadir II. The British, who suppressed a revolt in the country in 1857, annexed India to Britain and Queen Victoria was officially declared the Empress of India.
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